Vocabulary and Morphology

Reading is the act of processing text in order to derive meaning. To learn to read, children must develop both fluent word reading and language comprehension (Gough & Tunmer, 1986). Language comprehension encompasses vocabulary and morphology, knowledge, syntax, and higher-level language skills.

How Vocabulary and Morphology Contribute to Reading Development

Vocabulary refers to "all of the words of our language. One must know words to communicate effectively. Vocabulary is important to reading comprehension because readers cannot understand what they are reading without knowing what most of the words mean. Vocabulary development refers to stored information about the meanings and pronunciation of words necessary for communication" (Florida Center for Reading Research Glossary of Reading Terms).

"[T]he role of vocabulary in academic success increases through the grades, and that early vocabulary knowledge predicts reading comprehension skill in later grades" (Pierce, Wechsler-Zimring, Noam, Wolf, & Tami Katzir, 2013).

Morphology refers to "the knowledge of meaningful word parts in a language (typically the knowledge of prefixes, suffixes, and/or roots and base words)" (Foorman et al., 2016 ). Knowledge of word structure and how words are formed is linked to both greater vocabulary development and stronger reading comprehension (Prince, 2009; Wolter & Green, 2013). Research has shown that in children as young as first grade, knowledge of word parts has influenced their literacy development (Wolter, Wood, & D'zatko, 2009).

Promoting Vocabulary and Morphology Development in the Classroom

Vocabulary and morphology knowledge are supported by explicit teaching in word meaning, word parts, and spelling. "Current vocabulary research confirms the benefits of explicit teaching over implicit teaching in promoting vocabulary development" (National Reading Technical Assistance Center, 2010 ). Also, "teachers need to show the spellings of new vocabulary words when they discuss their meanings. Students need to stop and pronounce unfamiliar words rather than skip them during independent reading" (Ehri & Rosenthal, 2007). "Instructional implications are that teachers should include written words as part of vocabulary instruction and that students should pronounce spellings as well as determine meanings when they encounter new vocabulary words…Students who see the spellings of words actually learn the meanings of the words more easily — orthographic knowledge benefits vocabulary learning" (Rosenthal & Ehri, 2008).

When teaching vocabulary, activities that support deeper understanding allow students to:

make connections between a new vocabulary word and other known words
relate the word to their own experiences
differentiate between correct and incorrect uses of the word
generate and answer questions that include the word (Foorman et al., 2016 )

To support students with vocabulary and morphology, teach word parts: roots, prefixes, suffixes, tenses, and plurals. See the Basic Morphology section of this sample LETRS scope and sequence for Word Study, Spelling, and Reading.

LETRS sample scope and sequence

Selecting Vocabulary for Instruction

When selecting vocabulary for instruction, approaches that support students to make connections and build knowledge include:

Focusing on new word meanings from oral sources such as content rich read alouds (Beimiller, 2015)
Deriving vocabulary from content learning materials so students can readily use them in many contexts (National Reading Panel, 2000)
Presenting words in integrated contexts to support students in remembering not only the words themselves, but the linkages in meaning between them (Wright & Neuman, 2014)

Additionally, the Texas Center for Learning Disabilities recommends targeting words that are

essential to understanding the main idea of the text or unit,
used repeatedly or frequently encountered across domains, and
not part of students' prior knowledge.

Resources to Support Selection of Vocabulary for Instruction

A Word Selection Grid: Choosing Vocabulary to Teach, article from Margie Gillis, and Nancy Chapel Eberhardt in Perspectives on Language and Literacy, 41 (3): 49.
Selecting words to teach (video) and blank word selection grid , from Literacy How
Choosing Words to Teach, from Reading Rockets
Which Words Do I Teach and How? from Student Achievement Partners
Vocabulary Development During Read Alouds: Primary Practices, from Reading Rockets
Selecting Vocabulary Words to Teach English Language Learners, article from Colorin Colorado
How to Select Words for In-Depth Instruction with ELLs , from Achieve the Core

Examples of Evidence-Based Vocabulary Strategies

Selecting and Using Academic Vocabulary in Instruction , from Achieve the Core (Resource)
Six-step process for teaching vocabulary (Marzano & Simms, 2013)
Morphological Awareness, from University of Michigan (Resource)
Morphology, from Institute of Education Sciences (Video)
Base Word, Prefix, Suffix, from the Institute for Education Sciences (Video)
Word Analysis Strategy, from the Institute for Education Sciences (Video)
Recommendation 2 from the IES Practice Guide "Foundational Skills to Support Reading for Understanding in Kindergarten Through 3rd Grade": Teach students to decode words, analyze word parts, and write and recognize words , (Resource) (see section 3, pp. 26–27)
Language and Vocabulary, from Florida Center for Reading Research (Activities for PreK)
Word Knowledge, Morphemic Elements, Word Meaning, and Word Analysis, from Florida Center for Reading Research (Activities for Grades K–1)
Word Knowledge, Morphemic Elements, Word Meaning, and Word Analysis, from Florida Center for Reading Research (Activities for Grades 2–3)
A Teaching Routine for Academic Vocabulary in Grades PreK-1, from Institute for Education Sciences (Video)

Learn More about Vocabulary and Morphology

Effects of Instruction in Morphological Awareness on Literacy Achievement: An Integrative Review , by Joanne F. Carlisle
The Language and Reading Research Consortium (LARRC) developed an evidence-based 25-week curriculum supplement for children in grades pre-kindergarten to third grade designed to improve children's language skills as a means to improving their reading comprehension. These materials are public, free, and downloadable.
Topics in Language Disorders, Issue Editor Foreword: Morphological Awareness and Literacy, an entire issue devoted to morphological awareness
Morphological Awareness: One Piece of the Literacy Pie, from The International Dyslexia Association
The National Reading Panel, 2000 (Report) Chapter 4, Part 1 Vocabulary Instruction p. 4–15

Considerations for Students Learning English

English learners should have equal opportunity to meaningfully participate in all literacy instruction. The WIDA Can Do Descriptors highlight what language learners can do at various stages of language development.

Taking Bilingualism into Account

While vocabulary instruction is important to all learners, explicit vocabulary instruction with second language learners has bigger impacts on learning than usually reported for first language students (August et al., 2008).

Supports for English Learners

Choose a brief, engaging piece of informational text that includes academic vocabulary as a platform for intensive academic vocabulary instruction (Baker et al., 2014 ).
Choose a small set of academic vocabulary for in-depth instruction (Baker et al., 2014 ).
Teach academic vocabulary in depth using multiple modalities (writing, speaking, listening) (Baker et al., 2014 ).
Emphasize the acquisition of meanings of everyday words that native speakers know and that are not necessarily part of the academic curriculum (Baker et al., 2014).
Teach word-learning strategies to help students independently figure out the meaning of words: Word Parts and Cognates, from Institute of Education Sciences (Video EL support example Grades 2 & 3); Activities to Promote Word Learning Grades 2 and 3, from Institute of Education Sciences, (Video).
The Go To Strategies , from Project EXCELL
Language Development for Preschool ELLs **, from Colorin Colorado (Strategies for ELs)
Recommendation 3, Provide extensive and varied vocabulary instruction , from Institute of Education Sciences (Resource)
The WIDA Instructional Supports provide a reference list of appropriate graphic, sensory, and interactive supports to use with the WIDA Can Do Descriptors when instructing language learners.

References

August, D., Beck, I. L., Calderón, M., Francis, D. J., Lesaux, N. K., Shanahan, T., Erickson, F., & Siegel, L. S. (2008). Instruction and professional development. In D. August, & T. Shanahan (Eds.), Developing reading and writing in second-language learners: Lessons from the report of the national literacy panel on language-minority children and youth (pp. 131–250). New York: Routledge.

Baker, S., Lesaux, N., Jayanthi, M., Dimino, J., Proctor, C. P., Morris, J., Gersten, R., Haymond, K., Kieffer, M. J., Linan-Thompson, S., & Newman-Gonchar, R. (2014). Teaching academic content and literacy to English learners in elementary and middle school (NCEE 2014–4012). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance (NCEE), Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from the NCEE website: Product Search.

Beimiller, A. (2015). Which words are worth teaching? Perspectives on Language and Literacy. Summer 2015. The International Dyslexia Association.

Ehri, L.C., & Rosenthal, J. (2007). Spellings of words: A neglected facilitator of vocabulary learning. In Dorit Aram & Ofra Korat (Eds.) Literacy development and enhancement across orthographies and cultures, pp.137–152.

Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, NIH, DHHS. (2000). Report of the national reading panel: Teaching children to read: reports of the subgroups (00-4754). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Foorman, B., Beyler, N., Borradaile, K., Coyne, M., Denton, C. A., Dimino, J., Furgeson, J., Hayes, L., Henke, J., Justice, L., Keating, B., Lewis, W., Sattar, S., Streke, A., Wagner, R., & Wissel, S. (2016). Foundational skills to support reading for understanding in kindergarten through 3rd grade (NCEE 2016-4008). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance (NCEE), Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education.

Gough, P.B. & Tunmer, W.E. (1986). Decoding, reading, and reading disability. Remedial and Special Education, 7, 6–10.

Hogan, T. P., Adolf, S. M., & Alonzo, C. N. (2014). On the importance of listening comprehension. International journal of speech-language pathology, 16(3), 199–207.

Pearson, P. D. & Gallagher, M.C. (1983). The instruction of reading comprehension. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 8, 1983, pp. 317–344.

Pierce, M.E., Wechsler-Zimring, A., Noam, G., Wolf, M., & Tami Katzir, T. (2013). Behavioral problems and reading difficulties among language minority and monolingual urban elementary school students. Reading Psychology, 34(2), 182–205.

Prince, R.E.C. (2010). Making the words add up: How morphology — viewing words as a combination of parts — can become an instructional tool for building reading skills. Usable Knowledge.

Rosenthal, J., & Ehri, L.C. (2008). The mnemonic value of orthography for vocabulary learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100(1), 175–191.

Wolter, Julie A.; Green, Laura. Morphological awareness intervention in school-age children with language and literacy Deficits: A case study. Topics in Language Disorders: January/March 2013, (33)1, 27–41.

Wolter, J. A., Wood, A., & D'zatko, K. W. (2009). The influence of morphological awareness on the literacy development of first-grade children. Language, speech, and hearing services in schools, 40(3), 286–298.

Wright, T. & Neuman, S. (2014). The magic of words: teaching vocabulary in the early childhood classroom . American Educator.

**Disclosure Statement: Reference in this website to any specific commercial products, processes, or services, or the use of any trade, firm, or corporation name is for the information and convenience of the public, and does not constitute endorsement or recommendation by the Massachusetts Department of Elementary and Secondary Education (DESE). Our office is not responsible for and does not in any way guarantee the accuracy of information in other sites accessible through links herein. DESE may supplement this list with other services and products that meet the specified criteria. For more information contact: RMB252@mass.gov.

Last Updated: February 16, 2023